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Physiology and Growth |
Department of Physiology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore MD 21205, USA1
Author for correspondence: Rajini Rao. Tel: +1 410 955 4732. Fax: +1 410 955 0461. e-mail: rrao{at}jhmi.edu
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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nhx1 null mutant. Our results also show that the osmotolerance conferred by Nhx1 contributes to the postdiauxic/stationary-phase resistance to osmotic stress and allows for the continued growth of cells until the acquired osmotolerance response can occur. Keywords: Na+/H+ exchanger, osmotolerance, hypertonic shock, vacuole, Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Abbreviations: GPDH, NADH-dependent glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; HOG, high-osmolarity glycerol; MAP, mitogen-activated protein
a Present address: Center for Molecular Neuroscience and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville TN 37232, USA.
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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; Blomberg et al., 1988 ; Blomberg & Adler, 1992 ; Albertyn et al., 1994a , b ). The intracellular glycerol concentration can rise to over 2 M and is largely dependent on the induction of NADH-dependent glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH), the activity of which can rise 30-fold (Blomberg & Adler, 1992 ; Albertyn et al., 1994a ; Serrano, 1996 ). The induction of GPDH is regulated by the high-osmolarity glycerol (HOG) response pathway (Brewster et al., 1993 ). Since significant glycerol production does not begin for several hours following exposure to the osmotic stress, it has been proposed that another regulatory mechanism must occur to protect cells from an immediate osmotic challenge (Blomberg et al., 1988 ; Latterich & Watson, 1993 ).
The yeast vacuole is involved in osmoregulation (Matile, 1978 ; Banta et al., 1988 ) and may play a role in protecting cells from a sudden osmotic challenge. Many vacuole mutants that have altered morphology, or have defects in protein sorting, are also sensitive to osmotic stress (Banta et al., 1988 ; Latterich & Watson, 1991 , 1993 ). Thus a yeast mutant defective in vacuole biogenesis loses viability within 10 s exposure to 1·5 M NaCl (Latterich & Watson, 1993 ).
Tolerance to osmotic shock is dependent on the physiological state of the cells. Exponential-phase cells are much more sensitive to osmotic shock relative to the slow-growing postdiauxic-phase cells or non-growing stationary-phase cells (Brown et al., 1986 ; Mackenzie et al., 1986 ; Blomberg et al., 1988 ; Mager & Varela, 1993 ; Werner-Washburne et al., 1993 ). Although this phenomenon remains largely unexplained, the non-reducing disaccharide trehalose may partially contribute toward osmotolerance; thus osmoresistance in yeast correlates with an increase in the intracellular content of this sugar, which accumulates during stationary phase (Crowe et al., 1984 ; Hottiger et al., 1987 ). However, trehalose levels alone may not be sufficient to counter the large increase in osmotolerance (Andre et al., 1991 ).
Higher eukaryotes regulate intracellular ion concentrations in response to an immediate osmotic challenge. The vacuole in plant cells is involved in regulating turgor pressure (Zimmermann, 1978 ; Boller & Wiemken, 1986 ). In halophytes, Na+ accumulation (with Cl- and water) in the vacuoles of the leaf protects the cells from the detrimental effects of high salt and osmolarity (Flowers et al., 1986 ). The transport of Na+ into the tonoplast is believed to be mediated via a Na+/H+ antiporter, which is driven by the H+ gradient generated by the vacuolar H+-ATPase (Blumwald & Poole, 1987 ; Garbarino & DuPont, 1988 ; Barkla & Blumwald, 1992 ).
In mammalian cells, plasma membrane Na+/H+ exchangers are activated in response to both short- and long-term hyperosmotic stress (Grinstein et al., 1989 ; Soleimani et al., 1995 ; Wakabayashi et al., 1997 ). Although the exact molecular mechanisms involved in exchanger activation are unknown, the exchanger is believed to become activated in response to cell shrinkage (Donowitz et al., 1996 ; Wakabayashi et al., 1997 ). The decrease in the cell volume causes the exchanger to become more sensitive to intracellular protons, and the activation of the exchanger causes an increased influx of Na+ (and Cl-). With the obligatory influx of water, cell volume is restored (Grinstein et al., 1985 , 1992 ; Hoffmann & Simonsen, 1989 ).
We have recently identified a novel intracellular Na+/H+ exchanger in yeast, Nhx1, which contributes to cellular Na+ homeostasis (Nass et al., 1997 ). We have localized the exchanger to the late endosome/prevacuolar compartment (PVC) and have proposed that it may be involved in Na+ transport, water movement and vesicle volume regulation (Nass & Rao, 1998 ). Consistent with these functions, we have shown that the exchanger co-localizes with Gef1, the yeast homologue of the CLC family of chloride channels, and is required for salt amelioration conferred by overexpression of an Arabidopsis vacuolar H+ pyrophosphatase in yeast (Gaxiola et al., 1999 ). Considering the important role of Na+/H+ exchangers in the osmoregulatory response of plants and mammalian cells, and the similarities in ion homeostasis in plants and yeast, we asked whether Nhx1 contributes to osmotolerance. Our results indicate that Nhx1 plays a role in the recovery of cell growth following exposure to hyperosmotic media. Furthermore, we show that the osmotolerance conferred by Nhx1 contributes to the postdiauxic-phase resistance to osmotic stress, and allows for the continued growth of cells until acquired osmotolerance can occur.
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METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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nhx1) are isogenic to W303 and have been described previously (Nass et al., 1997 ). APG is a synthetic minimal medium containing 10 mM arginine, 8 mM phosphoric acid, 2% glucose, 2 mM MgSO4, 1 mM KCl, 0·2 mM CaCl2 and trace minerals and vitamins, as described previously (Nass et al., 1997 ). APGal medium is identical to APG except that 2% galactose is substituted for glucose. Where indicated, sorbitol was added or the pH was adjusted by the addition of acetic acid.
Growth assays.
Seed cultures of K601 and R100 were grown at 30 °C in APG medium, adjusted to pH 4 with dilute acetic acid. The cultures were diluted tenfold and grown for 72 h in fresh medium. Postdiauxic-phase cells were then diluted 100-fold in APG medium, pH 4, and growth for 60 h on a shaker at 290 r.p.m. in the absence or presence of 1 M sorbitol was monitored at 600 nm. Where indicated, cultures were grown to the appropriate growth phase and then equivalent numbers of cells were inoculated into 1 ml medium containing a range of sorbitol concentrations in a multiwell plate. Growth was monitored by measuring OD600 after culturing for the indicated times at 30 °C. Growth assays shown are representative of one of at least three independent experiments. Relative growth is the OD600 at any sorbitol concentration, divided by the OD600 of the culture grown in the absence of sorbitol, expressed as percentage.
Confocal imaging.
Cultures of K601 and R100 were grown to late exponential phase, loaded with the styryl dye FM 4-64 and examined by confocal microscopy as described previously (Nass & Rao, 1998 ). Cells were collected by centrifugation for 20 s at 5000 r.p.m., resuspended in APG medium, pH 4, containing 2 M sorbitol and incubated at 23 °C for the indicated times.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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; Grinstein et al., 1992 ; Nath et al., 1996 ; Soleimani et al., 1995 ). The activity of NHE2 is also affected by exposure to hyperosmotic medium in a manner dependent on the expression system (Kapus et al., 1994 ; Nath et al., 1996 ). To determine if the yeast Na+/H+ exchanger Nhx1 also contributes to osmotolerance, we examined the growth of the nhx1 mutant and its isogenic wild-type control in response to increasing osmotic stress in APG medium, pH 4, using varying concentrations of sorbitol. The wild-type control attained up to threefold higher cell density relative to the nhx1 mutant under the hyperosmotic conditions tested (Fig. 1). Half-maximal growth (IC50) was observed at 1 M sorbitol for the nhx1 strain and 1·3 M sorbitol for wild-type. In medium adjusted to pH 7, there was no effect of the nhx1 mutation on osmotolerance (K. Wells & R. Rao, unpublished observations), suggesting that Nhx1-mediated osmotolerance requires a pH gradient. We have previously noted a similar absence of the salt-tolerant phenotype of Nhx1 at neutral pH (Nass et al., 1997 ).
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; Albertyn et al., 1994a ). To reduce the contribution of glycerol, we examined cell growth in the presence of the derepressing sugar galactose, which limits glycerol production (Fraenkel, 1982 ; Rios et al., 1997 ). Consistent with previous observations, cells inoculated in galactose media were more sensitive to osmotic stress, with half-maximal growth occurring at 800 mM sorbitol (Fig. 2a) (Rios et al., 1997 ). However, as in glucose-containing medium, wild-type cells were more osmotolerant than the isogenic nhx1 null mutant (up to fourfold higher cell density relative to the nhx1 mutant; Fig. 2b). These results indicate that the osmotolerance conferred by Nhx1 is not directly dependent on glycerol production and can occur in medium containing a derepressing sugar.
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; Elliott & Futcher, 1993 ; Werner-Washburne et al., 1993 ). A similar effect of growth phase has been observed following exposure of cells to sudden osmotic shock (Mackenzie et al., 1986 ; Blomberg et al., 1988 ; Werner-Washburne et al., 1993 ). Fig. 2
shows that Nhx1 confers significant osmotolerance when the inoculum contains postdiauxic-/stationary-phase cells but not with exponential-phase cells. Similar results were seen in cultures grown in glucose-containing medium (data not shown). These results indicate that Nhx1 plays a significant role in the recovery of postdiauxic-/stationary-phase cells following exposure to sudden osmotic shock.
Nhx1 plays a role in the short-term response to hyperosmotic shock but not in long-term acquired osmotolerance
To determine whether Nhx1 may play a role in protecting cells from sudden exposure to osmotic dehydration, we followed duplicate growth curves in APG, pH 4, and monitored growth at or before 40 h (short-term) and at 90 h (long-term). The inoculum contained postdiauxic-phase cells. As shown earlier (Fig. 1), there was a difference in cell density of the nhx1 mutant relative to wild-type after 40 h. However, this difference in growth was completely eliminated after 90 h, indicating that the absence of Nhx1 does not affect viability or long-term acquired osmotolerance (data not shown). For example, in cultures containing 1·4 M sorbitol, the cell density of the mutant was threefold lower than wild-type after 40 h of growth, but was identical to wild-type after 90 h. We conclude that Nhx1 plays a significant role in the events following sudden exposure to hyperosmotic media.
Nhx1 contributes to vacuolar shrinkage upon exposure to hypertonic stress
Yeast cells can alter their cell volume in response to osmotic challenge, decreasing volume in response to hypertonic stress and increasing volume in the presence of hypotonic stress (Niedermeyer et al., 1977 ; Morris et al., 1986 ; Blomberg & Adler, 1992 ). These responses are reversible, and in the case of dehydration, occur within a minute (Morris et al., 1986 ). The vacuolar size also decreases following exposure to hypertonic solutions (Morris et al., 1986 ; Blomberg & Adler, 1992 ). To determine if Nhx1 contributes to changes in vacuolar volume, we directly visualized vacuole size in vivo, by confocal microscopy, after acute exposure to hyperosmotic medium. Vacuoles in living cells were labelled with the styryl dye FM 4-64, which intercalates into the plasma membrane and is internalized by endocytosis, accumulating in the acidic vacuolar compartment (Vida & Emr, 1995 ). In the absence of hypertonic stress, vacuoles from wild-type or the nhx1 mutant had a similar appearance (Fig. 3a–f). Upon exposure to hypertonic medium, vacuoles of wild-type cells shrank within 6 min, with the surface rapidly changing from smooth to crenellated (Fig. 3g–i). Longer-term exposure to sorbitol (Fig. 3m–o) or growth for several days in 1 M sorbitol (data not shown) largely reversed these changes, with persistent staining of perivacuolar vesicles that are likely to represent the prevacuolar compartment as observed previously (Nass & Rao, 1998 ). In contrast, the majority of nhx1 cells showed significantly smaller changes in vacuolar volume and appearance in the short-term response to hyperosmotic challenge (Fig. 3j–l). Furthermore, the changes in vacuolar structure persisted for longer times in the mutant (Fig. 3p–r), suggesting that the response to osmotic stress was delayed or compromised in the absence of Nhx1. These observations suggest that Na+/H+ exchange by Nhx1 may be involved in regulating vacuolar volume in response to hypertonic stress.
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). However, the rate of growth and its relation to osmotolerance is debatable. To determine the effects of osmotic stress on the growth rate, we examined growth of wild-type and nhx1 strains in APG medium, pH 4, in the presence and absence of 1 M sorbitol. The growth rates and growth profiles of wild-type and nhx1 cells were very similar under non-stressed conditions but dramatically different in 1 M sorbitol (Fig. 4). As expected, growth in 1 M sorbitol increased the time it took for wild-type cells to enter exponential phase, consistent with other results (Chowdhury et al., 1992 ; Albertyn et al., 1994a ). However, in both media, wild-type cells entered exponential phase at an OD600 of 0·1 and passed through the diauxic shift at an OD600 of 0·8. In contrast, the nhx1 strain had a prolonged lag phase and a period of about 10 h of extremely slow growth in hyperosmotic medium. Furthermore, relative to wild-type, the mutant cells entered exponential phase later (at an OD600 of 0·3), went through little more than one doubling to an OD600 of 0·7 before the diauxic transition and reached saturation at a lower cell density than wild-type. These results reiterate that Nhx1 plays a significant role in the response of postdiauxic-/stationary-phase cells to osmotic stress, dramatically decreasing their growth rate over much of their early life cycle. Thus, even though the nhx1 strain grew more slowly than wild-type, it was not more osmotolerant; in fact it was more osmosensitive. These results are consistent with the data in Figs 1 and 2: the mutant takes a much longer time to acclimatize to the osmotic stress and growth resumes at a slower rate.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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). The chronic response, or acquired osmotolerance, is primarily due to the activation of the HOG-MAP (mitogen-activated protein) kinase cascade with increased production and specific activity of GPDH (Brewster et al., 1993 ; Latterich & Watson, 1993 ; Serrano, 1996 ). This enzyme is responsible for production of the osmolyte glycerol, which counters long-term osmotic stress and is therefore essential for growth under high osmotic conditions (Blomberg & Adler, 1992 ; Albertyn et al., 1994b ; Serrano, 1996 ). The acute response occurs during sudden exposure of non-osmotically challenged cells to an osmotically stressful environment (Blomberg et al., 1988 ; Latterich & Watson, 1993 ). The acute response does not appear to be connected with the chronic response since cells retain little or no glycerol during non-osmotically stressed conditions, and the activity and cellular content of glycerol or GPDH does not correlate with the ability of cells to respond to a sudden osmotic shock (Blomberg et al., 1988 ; Latterich & Watson, 1993 ). Previously, no molecular mechanism has been identified in yeast that is directly involved in the acute response to osmotic shock.
In this study we examined the role of the endosomal Na+/H+ exchanger Nhx1 under osmotically stressful conditions. Following inoculation of wild-type and nhx1 cells from a postdiauxic-phase culture into sorbitol-supplemented medium, the mutant showed a reduction in osmotolerant growth, indicating that Nhx1 does play a role in the response to hyperosmotic stress. In the absence of osmotic stress, the wild-type and nhx1 mutant grew to similar cell densities; this is similar to the effect of null mutants of the MAP kinase cascade required for glycerol accumulation in acquired osmotolerance (HOG1 or PBS2; Brewster et al., 1993 ), and a null mutant required for vacuole biogenesis and the acute response to hyperosmotic shock (ssv1-2; Latterich & Watson, 1993 ). Interestingly, the reduction in growth of the nhx1 mutant in sorbitol-containing medium was observed within 30–40 h post-inoculation, but upon further growth to saturation, similar cell densities were observed for both mutant and wild-type. These results show that the nhx1 mutant is compromised in its ability to initially respond to the osmotic stress, but following prolonged exposure can apparently acclimatize and begin growing to levels similar to wild-type.
The activity and induction of the glycerol-producing enzyme GPDH is highest when cells use glucose as the carbon source (Rios et al., 1997 ; Serrano, 1996 ). Thus, carbon catabolite repression conditions, in which cells are grown in glucose, produce the greatest amounts of glycerol (Serrano, 1996 ). We examined the contribution of Nhx1 to osmotolerance using the partially derepressing carbon source galactose (Fraenkel, 1982 ) to minimize the contribution of high intracellular glycerol concentrations. Consistent with previous conclusions (Rios et al., 1997 ), galactose-grown cultures of both wild-type and the nhx1 mutant were significantly more sensitive to osmotic stress, and similar to glucose-grown cultures, nhx1 cells were more osmotically sensitive relative to the isogenic control.
Yeast cells pass through distinct physiological phases during growth in glucose media (Blomberg et al., 1988 ; Werner-Washburne et al., 1993 ). It has long been observed that postdiauxic-phase and stationary-phase cells are more tolerant to many environmental stresses, including osmotic stress (Schenberg-Frascino & Moustacchi, 1972 ; Mackenzie et al., 1986 ; Blomberg et al., 1988 ; Elliott & Futcher, 1993 ; Werner-Washburne et al., 1993 ). We show here that the physiological state of the cells affects Nhx1-mediated osmotolerance. Exponential-phase cells have greater sensitivity to sorbitol, as observed by the lower IC50 of 900 mM in wild-type (Fig. 2a). Furthermore, Nhx1 appears to contribute to osmotolerance only when the cells are in the postdiauxic/stationary phase upon exposure to sorbitol. It is possible that induction of Nhx1 activity or expression may occur at, or following, the diauxic shift, or that there are other mechanisms that contribute to osmotolerance in exponential-phase cells which compensate for the absence of Nhx1.
The yeast vacuole plays an important role in pH and ion homeostasis and contributes to protein trafficking, sorting and degradation (Banta et al., 1988 ; Klionsky et al., 1990 ; Bryant & Stevens, 1998 ). Osmotolerance has been directly linked to normal vacuole morphology and function (Banta et al., 1988 ; Mager & Varela, 1993 ; Latterich & Watson, 1993 ). We show here that the recently identified late endosomal/prevacuolar Na+/H+ exchanger Nhx1 contributes to osmotolerance (Nass et al., 1997 ; Nass & Rao, 1998 ). Under normal culture conditions, it is likely that Nhx1-mediated sequestration of Na+ in the late endosome/vacuole provides an osmoticum that serves to retain water in the vacuoles (Morris et al., 1986 ; Serrano, 1996 ). The maintenance of turgor pressure in the late endosome and vacuole may be important for the proper trafficking of essential proteins required for osmotic tolerance or normal cellular function.
Yeast cells respond to an immediate hyperosmotic stress by decreasing cell size, possibly through activation of plasma membrane mechanosensitive ion channels (Gustin et al., 1988 ) and water loss. It is possible that cell-shrinkage-mediated activation of the Na+/H+ exchange activity of Nhx1 may allow exit of Na+ ions, and consequently water, from the vacuoles, contributing to the observed changes in vacuolar morphology (Fig. 4). The flow of water from the vacuole to the cytoplasm may be an important initial response to counter hyperosmotic cell shrinkage. In the long-term, transport of Na+ into intracellular organelles by Nhx1 would protect sodium-sensitive proteins in the cytoplasm and contribute to the accumulation of osmotic equivalents in the vacuole; this may explain the delayed cell growth and short exponential phase of the nhx1 mutant. Future studies will need to address the molecular mechanisms of osmosensing and signal transduction involved in the Nhx1-mediated response to hyperosmotic challenge.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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Received 22 April 1999;
revised 29 June 1999;
accepted 9 July 1999.
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 S. Chen, M. Tarsio, P. M. Kane, and M. L. Greenberg Cardiolipin Mediates Cross-Talk between Mitochondria and the Vacuole Mol. Biol. Cell, December 1, 2008; 19(12): 5047 - 5058. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Loukin, X. Zhou, C. Kung, and Y. Saimi A genome-wide survey suggests an osmoprotective role for vacuolar Ca2+ release in cell wall-compromised yeast FASEB J, July 1, 2008; 22(7): 2405 - 2415. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. L. Jennings and J. Cui Chloride Homeostasis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: High Affinity Influx, V-ATPase-dependent Sequestration, and Identification of a Candidate Cl- Sensor J. Gen. Physiol., March 31, 2008; 131(4): 379 - 391. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 V. S. Anil, P. Rajkumar, P. Kumar, and M. K. Mathew A Plant Ca2+ Pump, ACA2, Relieves Salt Hypersensitivity in Yeast: MODULATION OF CYTOSOLIC CALCIUM SIGNATURE AND ACTIVATION OF ADAPTIVE Na+ HOMEOSTASIS J. Biol. Chem., February 8, 2008; 283(6): 3497 - 3506. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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O. Cagnac, M. Leterrier, M. Yeager, and E. Blumwald Identification and Characterization of Vnx1p, a Novel Type of Vacuolar Monovalent Cation/H+ Antiporter of Saccharomyces cerevisiae J. Biol. Chem., August 17, 2007; 282(33): 24284 - 24293. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Padilla-Lopez and D. A. Pearce Saccharomyces cerevisiae Lacking Btn1p Modulate Vacuolar ATPase Activity to Regulate pH Imbalance in the Vacuole J. Biol. Chem., April 14, 2006; 281(15): 10273 - 10280. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. M. Pardo, B. Cubero, E. O. Leidi, and F. J. Quintero Alkali cation exchangers: roles in cellular homeostasis and stress tolerance J. Exp. Bot., March 1, 2006; 57(5): 1181 - 1199. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. L. Brett, D. N. Tukaye, S. Mukherjee, and R. Rao The Yeast Endosomal Na+(K+)/H+ Exchanger Nhx1 Regulates Cellular pH to Control Vesicle Trafficking Mol. Biol. Cell, March 1, 2005; 16(3): 1396 - 1405. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 C. L. Brett, M. Donowitz, and R. Rao Evolutionary origins of eukaryotic sodium/proton exchangers Am J Physiol Cell Physiol, February 1, 2005; 288(2): C223 - C239. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. J. LaGrassa and C. Ungermann The vacuolar kinase Yck3 maintains organelle fragmentation by regulating the HOPS tethering complex J. Cell Biol., January 31, 2005; 168(3): 401 - 414. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 C.-A. Wu, G.-D. Yang, Q.-W. Meng, and C.-C. Zheng The Cotton GhNHX1 Gene Encoding a Novel Putative Tonoplast Na+/H+ Antiporter Plays an Important Role in Salt Stress Plant Cell Physiol., May 15, 2004; 45(5): 600 - 607. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Ali, C. L. Brett, S. Mukherjee, and R. Rao Inhibition of Sodium/Proton Exchange by a Rab-GTPase-activating Protein Regulates Endosomal Traffic in Yeast J. Biol. Chem., February 6, 2004; 279(6): 4498 - 4506. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Venema, A. Belver, M. C. Marin-Manzano, M. P. Rodriguez-Rosales, and J. P. Donaire A Novel Intracellular K+/H+ Antiporter Related to Na+/H+ Antiporters Is Important for K+ Ion Homeostasis in Plants J. Biol. Chem., June 13, 2003; 278(25): 22453 - 22459. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 X.-L. Zhou, A. F. Batiza, S. H. Loukin, C. P. Palmer, C. Kung, and Y. Saimi The transient receptor potential channel on the yeast vacuole is mechanosensitive PNAS, June 10, 2003; 100(12): 7105 - 7110. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 K. Viehweger, B. Dordschbal, and W. Roos Elicitor-Activated Phospholipase A2 Generates Lysophosphatidylcholines That Mobilize the Vacuolar H+ Pool for pH Signaling via the Activation of Na+-Dependent Proton Fluxes PLANT CELL, July 1, 2002; 14(7): 1509 - 1525. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. Dubois, B. Scherens, F. Vierendeels, M. M. W. Ho, F. Messenguy, and S. B. Shears In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the Inositol Polyphosphate Kinase Activity of Kcs1p Is Required for Resistance to Salt Stress, Cell Wall Integrity, and Vacuolar Morphogenesis J. Biol. Chem., June 21, 2002; 277(26): 23755 - 23763. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Hohmann Osmotic Stress Signaling and Osmoadaptation in Yeasts Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev., June 1, 2002; 66(2): 300 - 372. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. R. Managbanag and A. P. Torzilli An analysis of trehalose, glycerol, and mannitol accumulation during heat and salt stress in a salt marsh isolate of Aureobasidium pullulans Mycologia, May 1, 2002; 94(3): 384 - 391. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Bowers, B. P. Levi, F. I. Patel, and T. H. Stevens The Sodium/Proton Exchanger Nhx1p Is Required for Endosomal Protein Trafficking in the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae Mol. Biol. Cell, December 1, 2000; 11(12): 4277 - 4294. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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K. M. Wells and R. Rao The Yeast Na+/H+ Exchanger Nhx1 Is an N-Linked Glycoprotein. TOPOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS J. Biol. Chem., January 26, 2001; 276(5): 3401 - 3407. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Venema, F. J. Quintero, J. M. Pardo, and J. P. Donaire The Arabidopsis Na+/H+ Exchanger AtNHX1 Catalyzes Low Affinity Na+ and K+ Transport in Reconstituted Liposomes J. Biol. Chem., January 18, 2002; 277(4): 2413 - 2418. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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) and R100 (
) were generated as described in Methods and inoculated into 1 ml cultures of APG medium, pH 4, supplemented with varying amounts of sorbitol as shown. Growth was monitored at 600 nm following incubation at 30 °C for 33 h; relative growth is expressed as a percentage of control (no sorbitol added).
, wild-type, 1 M sorbitol; 
,