| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
1 Division of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London SW7 2AZ, UK
2 Division of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London SW7 2AZ, UK
Correspondence
Huw D Williams
h.d.williams{at}imperial.ac.uk
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
Present address: School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand.
|
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
). The broad range of niches inhabited by P. aeruginosa is facilitated by a significant nutritional and metabolic flexibility together with the possession of versatile modes of energy metabolism. P. aeruginosa is capable of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration as well as fermentation of arginine, although it preferentially obtains its energy from aerobic respiration (Davies et al., 1989; Zannoni, 1989). Recently there has been much interest in the anaerobic respiratory capability of P. aeruginosa, in particular the role anaerobic respiration may play in the sticky, dehydrated mucus layer that P. aeruginosa inhabits in the CF lung (for a review see Hassett et al., 2002). Therefore, a full appreciation of the respiratory metabolism of P. aeruginosa is important to understanding both its fundamental physiology and the factors significant in its pathogenicity.
P. aeruginosa possesses a branched aerobic electron-transport chain terminated by up to five terminal oxidases (Cooper et al., 2003). Four of these belong to the haem-copper oxidase superfamily, of which two are of the cytochrome cbb3 type (Comolli & Donohue, 2002). Another of these oxidases is an aa3-type cytochrome, which is common in many bacterial species, and is most closely related to the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase (Fujiwara et al., 1992). The P. aeruginosa PAO1 genome also contains genes for an uncharacterized haem-copper quinol oxidase related to the Escherichia coli cytochrome bo3. The fifth P. aeruginosa oxidase is called the cyanide-insensitive oxidase (CIO), and is homologous to the cytochrome bd quinol oxidases, which are the only known type of bacterial oxidases that are not members of the haem-copper oxidase family (Cunningham et al., 1997; Jünemann, 1997; Poole & Cook, 2000). Cytochrome bd oxidases have been found in a wide variety of bacteria and most recently have been shown to be present in Bacteroides fragilis, previously considered to be a strict anaerobe (Baughn & Malamy, 2004). In many cases cytochrome bd oxidases have a very high affinity for oxygen, consistent with a role at low oxygen tensions. However, this is not universally the case; for example, the cytochrome bd oxidase of Azotobacter vinelandii has a much lower affinity for oxygen than the E. coli enzyme, and is induced by high levels of oxygen (D'Mello et al., 1996; Hoffmann et al., 1979; Poole & Cook, 2000). The CIO in P. aeruginosa, however, appears not to possess haem d, unlike other cytochrome bd oxidases; thus the CIO belongs to a class of oxidase which is separate from but related to cytochrome bd oxidases (Cunningham et al., 1997). Like cytochrome bd oxidases the CIO is relatively insensitive to the potent respiratory inhibitor cyanide, allowing respiration to proceed in the presence of >1 mM potassium cyanide, whilst oxidases sensitive to cyanide are routinely inhibited by concentrations of the order of 100 µM or lower (Cunningham & Williams, 1995; Poole & Cook, 2000).
Regulation of the CIO is not fully understood, though it is known that it is produced on the entry to stationary phase, and whilst cyanide is a potent inducer of the cioAB genes, expression analysis of the cioAB genes in a 
hcnB mutant has shown that cyanide is not the endogenous inducer (Cooper et al., 2003). There is evidence that the RoxRS two-component system is involved in regulation of the CIO, though the full role of this system has yet to be firmly established (Comolli & Donohue, 2002; Cooper et al., 2003). Mutation and overexpression of the CIO has been shown to result in pleiotropic effects on the cell, including multinucleate non-septate filamentation, temperature sensitivity and multiple antibiotic sensitivity (Tavankar et al., 2003).
P. aeruginosa produces an arsenal of virulence factors on entry into stationary phase, including hydrogen cyanide, which is produced at concentrations of around 300 µM (Blumer & Haas, 2000). HCN is made by oxidation of the amino acid glycine and is proposed to occur in two stages via imino acetic acid, but there is no direct evidence for this mechanism as the HCN synthase has not been purified and its reaction characterized. The purpose of cyanide production by P. aeruginosa is far from clear. However, it has been shown that cyanide is the mediating factor in the paralytic killing model of Caenorhabditis elegans by P. aeruginosa, raising the possibility that this may be significant in the pathogenicity of this bacterium (Gallagher & Manoil, 2001). Additionally, it is known that cyanide can be found in burn wound infections caused by P. aeruginosa (Goldfarb & Margraf, 1967).
Cyanide synthesis is coincident with CIO production, although there is no evidence of common regulatory factors and thus the precise relationship between the two has yet to be determined. However, it has been suggested that the CIO could be acting as a sink for electrons produced during the oxidation of glycine to produce cyanide (Blumer & Haas, 2000) and that the CIO could have a role in allowing growth under cyanogenic conditions (Cunningham & Williams, 1995; Cunningham et al., 1997). This paper examines both of these possibilities as well as investigating the contribution of the CIO to pathogenicity in the cyanide-mediated paralytic killing model of C. elegans.
|
METHODS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
. Strains were grown in LB broth (10 g tryptone l–1, 5 g yeast extract l–1 and 5 g NaCl l–1) at 30 °C with appropriate antibiotic addition. Antibiotics were added as required at the following final concentrations: tetracycline 125 or 300 µg ml–1, carbenicillin 500 µg ml–1 and chloramphenicol 400 µg ml–1 (20 µg ml–1 for E. coli). Overnight cultures were prepared by inoculating several colonies into 5 ml LB in a 25 ml sterile universal bottle; 1 ml overnight culture was then used to inoculate 50 ml fresh medium in a 250 ml conical flask, except for growth curves in the presence of exogenous cyanide, where a 250 µl inoculum was used.
|
) followed by allelic exchange. The primers used were cioAB1 (5'-CTAGAGATCTATGTTCGGATTGGAGGCTATCGAC-3'), cioAB2 (5'-CACCAGGACCAGGATCGGCACGTAGGTCAGCAGCGGACCGGT-3'), cioAB3 (5'-ACCGGTCCGCTGCTGACCTACGTGCCGATCCTGGTCCTGGTG 0-3') and cioAB4 (5'-CTAGACTAGTGTGATAGCCATCGCCGTGCTTCAC-3'). Two DNA fragments, flanking the region to be deleted, were generated by PCR using the primer pairs cioAB1/cioAB2 and cioAB3/cioAB4. Complementary extensions were present on the 5' ends of the primers cioAB2 and cioAB3. The two PCR fragments generated were mixed and used as templates for the primers cioAB1 and cioAB4 to generate a fragment that contained the required deletion. The deletion fragment, cioAB1/cioAB4, was then introduced into the BglII and SpeI restriction sites of the suicide plasmid pDM4 (Milton et al., 1996) using E. coli strain S17-1, and the plasmid was introduced into PAO1 by conjugation. Allelic exchange of the wild-type cioAB region with the cioAB1/cioAB4 fragment was achieved by double homologous recombination using the sacB-based sucrose-selection technique as previously described (Milton et al., 1996). This resulted in an in-frame deletion of 1875 bp between nucleotide position 300 of the cioA gene and nucleotide position 705 of the downstream co-transcribed cioB gene, which was confirmed by PCR and DNA sequencing analyses.
RT-PCR.
To determine whether the in-frame deletion mutation in cioAB was non-polar, primer pairs were designed to amplify the cioAB transcript alone and a putative transcript comprising part of cioB and the ORF immediately downstream, PA3928. These primer pairs are cioABrightflankF (5'-GCTCACCCTGGTGTTGATCT-3')/cioABrightflankR (5'-CGCGGAACACGTAGTAGCTC-3') and cioABrightflankF/PA3928R (5'-CATGAACAGGCGCATCAG-3'). RNA was extracted from stationary-phase cultures using TRIzol (Invitrogen) and DNase (Invitrogen) treated according to the manufacturers' instructions. Triplicate samples were harvested for each strain. RT-PCR was carried out using the Qiagen OneStep RT-PCR kit. Genomic DNA contamination of the harvested RNA was controlled for all samples by performing a PCR reaction omitting the reverse transcriptase step from the Qiagen OneStep RT-PCR reaction. In all reactions P. aeruginosa genomic DNA was used as a positive control.
Cyanide measurements.
Cyanide levels were determined using a cyanide ion-selective electrode (Zlosnik & Williams, 2004).
Cyanide minimum inhibitory concentrations.
Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for various strains were determined by twofold dilutions of cyanide in 5 ml LB broth in a 25 ml screw-top Sterilin tube containing any relevant antibiotics. Approximately 5x106 cells of diluted mid-exponential-phase culture (OD600 0·7) or stationary-phase culture (OD600 1·7) were inoculated, equating to a final concentration of 1x106 cells ml–1. These cultures were then incubated overnight at 30 °C in a shaking incubator at 200 r.p.m. and analysed by eye to determine the presence or absence of growth.
Fermentation end product analysis.
Cultures were grown for 3 h into stationary phase (9 h from the start of the culture) in a flask stoppered with a foam bung; this was then replaced with a ‘Suba seal’ rubber bung. Flasks were harvested at 3, 52 and 125 h into stationary phase; supernatant fractions were prepared by centrifugation of 15 ml of culture at 3200 g for 25 min at 4 °C and stored at –80 °C prior to analysis. Metabolite concentrations in the growth medium were measured by 1H NMR spectroscopy. A 600 MHz Bruker Avance DRX600 spectrometer was used, equipped with a 5 mm broad-band inverse probe. Immediately prior to analysis the samples were cleared by centrifugation (10 min, 16 000 g), and 790 µl mixed with 200 µl 2H2O buffer (0·1 M phosphate, pH 7·0) also containing 0·6 mM sodium trimethylsilyl-2,2,3,3-tetradeuteropropionate (TSP) and 10 µl 2 % NaN3 solution. This was then mixed, centrifuged again, and 550 µl transferred to an NMR tube. The 2H2O provided a field-frequency lock for the spectrometer, and the TSP served as an internal chemical shift reference. Spectra were acquired at 300 K using a NOESYPRESAT water-suppression pulse sequence. The spectra were acquired across a 12 kHz spectral width into 32K data points, giving an associated acquisition time of 1·36 s, with an additional T1 relaxation recovery delay of 6 s. Four dummy scans were followed by 128 transients; the summed data were then multiplied by an exponential apodization factor equivalent to 0·5 Hz line broadening, and Fourier transformed. The spectra were then phased and baseline-corrected using ACDLabs 1D NMR Processor 7.0. The presence of target metabolites (ethanol, lactate, acetate, pyruvate, succinate, ornithine) was then determined based on their known chemical shifts (Lindon et al., 1999). Signals were integrated manually and expressed relative to the TSP resonance.
C. elegans paralytic killing experiments.
The C. elegans strain used in this work was wild-type Bristol strain N2. Nematodes were grown at 22–23 °C on NG agar with E. coli OP50 as a food source and were handled using standard techniques (Brenner, 1974; Wood, 1988). Paralytic killing assays were carried out using as described by Gallagher & Manoil (2001).
|
RESULTS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
). The in-frame deletion mutant would be expected to be non-polar, but to confirm this we carried out an RT-PCR experiment. We designed primers to amplify a cioB transcript downstream of the deletion, and a putative cioB–PA3928 transcript. PA3928 is a 171 bp putative ORF immediately downstream of cioB. In both wild-type and cio mutant samples, primers designed to cioB downstream of the deletion in PAO7721 successfully amplified a product, whilst primers designed to include both the remainder of the cioB transcript and any co-transcribed PA3928 did not produce a product (data not shown). This demonstrates that the in-frame deletion mutant of cioAB is non-polar and furthermore allows us to conclude that the cioAB genes are not co-transcribed with PA3928.
Cyanide is produced at equivalent levels in stationary phase, irrespective of the CIO complement of the cell
To test the hypothesis that the CIO acts as a sink for electrons produced during cyanogenesis (Blumer & Haas, 2000), a range of P. aeruginosa strains were tested for cyanide production in stationary phase. These data show that in all strains, whether mutant in the cio gene, containing wild-type cio, or overexpressing cio, cyanide is produced at broadly equivalent levels (Fig. 1). A t-test showed that there was no significant difference between isogenic strains PAO1 and PAO7721 (P=0·075) nor between PAO6049 and PAO7701 (P=0·365) and therefore mutation of the cio genes does not result in any detectable difference in cyanide production. In all cases a mutant deficient in cyanide production (hcnB) did not produce any detectable cyanide. The levels of cyanide assayed are in agreement with previous observations of cyanide production (Pessi & Haas, 2000). The presence of wild-type levels of cyanide production in mutants from two separate isogenic pairs (PAO1/PAO7721 and PAO6049/PAO7701) demonstrates that the CIO cannot be acting as the sole sink for electrons produced during cyanogenesis.
|
). Interestingly, in cultures prepared using an exponential-phase inoculum all strains, except the CIO-overexpressing strain, had equivalent but lower cyanide MICs as compared to those where a stationary-phase inoculum was used.
|
). This was also seen for PAO7721 compared to its wild-type parent PAO1 (data not shown). The cyanide levels in these cultures dropped over time, reaching less than 100 µM after 6 h. Therefore, it seems likely that the cio mutant starts growth once sufficient cyanide has been removed from the culture to reduce its concentration to non-inhibitory levels. Indeed, loss of cyanide, termed outgassing, from culture medium is a recognized phenomenon in cell culture media (Arun et al., 2005). To test this hypothesis, strains were incubated in the presence of 500 µM cyanide in flasks sealed with rubber bungs, with foam-bung-stoppered flasks used as a control. This showed clearly that sealing a flask containing cyanide prevented the growth of PAO7701 (Fig. 4a); similar results were also seen for PAO7721 (data not shown). Cyanide measurements in sealed flasks after 24 h incubation also showed that cyanide levels were indeed considerably higher in those incubated with a rubber seal (Fig. 4b).
|
|
). Therefore, it is possible that the viability of cio mutants in stationary phase is affected by cyanide production. To examine this we looked at the viability of both PAO1 and PAO7721 over 267 h in flasks sealed at the beginning of stationary phase to prevent cyanide release. In this experiment, both mutant and wild-type cultures retained viability (Fig. 5a). Cyanide measurements demonstrated that cyanide remained in the flasks but over the time-course of the experiment levels fell from approximately 250 µM at the start to 75 µM at the end (Fig. 5b). As the flasks were sealed this result suggests that cyanide was actively broken down by the stationary-phase cultures. We further attempted to see if cio mutants possessed a stationary-phase exit defect; however, in various experiments we were unable to restart exponential-phase growth from stationary-phase cultures under cyanogenic conditions (data not shown).
|
) showed the presence of millimolar concentrations of acetate and micromolar concentrations of succinate, both of which are end products of the fermentation of pyruvate (Eschbach et al., 2004). The accumulation of acetate was the largest change observed, i.e. acetate was the major extracellular metabolite produced by the cultures. The acetate was clearly derived from the cultures, as it was not present in LB medium alone (data not shown). The levels of succinate did not change over time, and therefore its presence in the supernatants was most probably due to its presence at low levels in LB medium. Ethanol and pyruvate were not detected in any of the spectra. The resonances of lactate in 1D NMR spectra overlap with those of other metabolites found in LB broth. A 2D COSY (correlated spectroscopy) experiment showed that LB does contain lactate (data not shown); however, visual inspection of the chemical shift regions where the lactate resonances are found (1·33d and 4·14q) showed no changes, and therefore lactate was neither produced nor consumed by the cells. Additionally, there was no evidence for any production of ornithine, the end product of the ATP-generating arginine deaminase reaction (Vander Wauven et al., 1984), in the supernatant (data not shown). The marked accumulation of acetate suggests that P. aeruginosa cultures were fermenting in stationary phase irrespective of their CIO complement.
|
), we were interested to know what the role of the CIO might be in this model. Using PAO1 and its isogenic CIO mutant, PAO7721, in the paralytic killing model demonstrated that the CIO is required for full pathogenicity (Fig. 6). The CIO mutant has a lag in killing compared to PAO1. For example, after 35 min PAO1 has killed 56 % of the C. elegans population, compared to 16 % for PAO7721, whilst after 45 min PAO1 has killed 93 % of the C. elegans population, compared to 52 % for PAO7721. After 75 min both strains have reached a plateau at 95 % killing for PAO1 and 81 % killing for PAO7721.
|
|
DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
). Strains with different complements of CIO, including mutants and overexpressing strains, showed similar cyanide production levels to the wild-type strains. These data clearly demonstrate that the CIO is not the sole receptor for the electrons produced in cyanogenesis.
Cyanide is a potent respiratory toxin and completely inhibits terminal oxidases at micromolar concentrations, while the CIO is known to be resistant to concentrations greater than 1 mM (Cunningham & Williams, 1995). It is, perhaps, surprising that CIO mutants still produce cyanide at levels that are known to be inhibitory to the other oxidases it possesses. Whilst the CIO has been characterized as resistant to cyanide in activity assays, it has yet to be demonstrated that it physiologically confers cyanide resistance on cultures of P. aeruginosa. To address this question cyanide MICs were measured. Using cells from an exponential-phase culture, in which CIO activity is at a minimum (Cooper et al., 2003), all strains had equivalent resistance to cyanide, except the cioAB-overexpressing strain, which has increased CIO activity levels (Fig. 2) (Cunningham et al., 1997; Tavankar et al., 2003). However, when cells from a stationary-phase culture were used, in which the CIO activity is maximum, strains possessing a functional CIO had MICs two- to fourfold higher than cio mutants (Fig. 2). These data suggest that the CIO does have a role in protecting P. aeruginosa from cyanide.
The experiments shown in Figs 3 and 4 provided further evidence of a role for the CIO in relation to cyanide. Mutant and wild-type strains were grown in medium supplemented with 300 µM cyanide, equivalent to the concentration produced by these strains in batch culture. This experiment is similar to that performed by Comolli & Donohue (2002) on a cioAB mutant in a different wild-type background. Our results mirror those seen by Comolli & Donohue (2002), showing that CIO mutants demonstrate a considerable lag in growth (Fig. 3). The kinetics of cyanide loss in culture showed that cyanide is lost sharply until it appears to reach a level after which the cio mutants begin to grow (Fig. 3b). This is consistent with the idea that the lag ended as a result of the liberation of cyanide from the flask. This was tested further by inoculating wild-type and cio mutant strains into flasks containing 500 µM cyanide. The CIO mutants did not grow in sealed flasks, whilst those grown in flasks with gas-permeable foam bungs grew to a similar final optical density as the wild-type strain (Fig. 4). After 24 h incubation the sealed flasks exhibited cyanide concentrations that were higher than that needed to inhibit other terminal oxidases, and furthermore were several times higher than concentrations found in unsealed flasks.
From this work the question arises of how a cio mutant can produce wild-type levels of cyanide, despite the fact that growth seems to be inhibited at such concentrations. Cyanide is made upon entry into stationary phase, that is, as culture growth ends, and perhaps this mitigates the toxic effects of cyanide on the cio mutants. However, one would predict that aerobic respiration would not be possible in a cio mutant strain, so generation of energy for maintenance and cryptic growth in long-term stationary-phase cultures would be compromised and this might affect viability. However, cio mutants were not compromised in their stationary-phase viability (Fig. 5a), although they will have difficulty exiting stationary phase when cyanide is present at the levels produced early in this growth phase. It seems clear, from the data presented here, that cyanide is bacteriostatic rather than bacteriocidal and so the question is how P. aeruginosa is able to maintain viability given the likely inhibition of its aerobic respiration system. Given that the cultures are grown under aerobic conditions in LB broth without added nitrate, it is unlikely that anaerobic respiration is a factor. However, it is known that P. aeruginosa can also obtain ATP both from arginine using arginine deaminase and by the fermentation of pyruvate (Eschbach et al., 2004; Vander Wauven et al., 1984). Indeed Eschbach et al. (2004) showed that pyruvate fermentation by P. aeruginosa led to enhanced stationary-phase survival under anaerobic conditions. So pyruvate fermentation may be able to provide the energetic needs of cio mutants in stationary phase in the presence of inhibitory levels of cyanide; consistent with this is the presence of the fermentation end product acetate in the growth medium (Table 2). However, there was no significant difference in its concentrations between the wild-type and cio mutant. Indeed, acetate was present at similar concentrations to those found by Eschbach et al. (2004) from P. aeruginosa grown anaerobically with 20 mM pyruvate. These data suggest that fermentation is likely aiding long-term viability irrespective of the presence or absence of a functional electron-transport chain. Thus, this provides a possible explanation for the survival the cio mutant in the presence of cyanide at levels sufficient to inhibit normal growth and it may be that fermentation provides the electron sink for cyanide synthesis.
Cyanide detoxification may also be a factor in stationary-phase survival of strains. The enzyme rhodanese is made by P. aeruginosa and is capable of detoxifying cyanide. It has recently been shown to be capable of providing E. coli with additional protection against cyanide when expressed in trans (Cipollone et al., 2004, 2006). Indeed data for flasks sealed at stationary phase to prevent loss of cyanide produced in culture show that the cyanide concentration decreases over time from 
250 µM to 75 µM, consistent with cyanide degradation by the cultures (Fig. 5b).
In light of the demonstration that cyanide is the mediating factor in the paralytic model of infection of C. elegans (Gallagher & Manoil, 2001), we were interested in what role the CIO could be playing in this infection model. There are three different models of P. aeruginosa-mediated killing of C. elegans: fast killing, slow killing and paralytic killing; the mode of killing depends on the experimental conditions used, principally the medium composition (Darby et al., 1999; Tan et al., 1999). It is known that phenazines mediate the fast killing model whilst cyanide mediates the paralytic killing model, in which rapid neuromuscular paralysis leads to death (Gallagher & Manoil, 2001; Mahajan-Miklos et al., 1999). Given that the CIO provides P. aeruginosa with protection against cyanide during active growth it is conceivable that it could be an important adaptation in this pathogenicity model. Our data showed that the cioAB deletion mutant was unable to kill C. elegans with the same efficiency as the wild-type PAO1 (Fig. 6). Whilst loss of the CIO does not prevent killing of C. elegans, as loss of cyanide production does, it is nonetheless clear that the killing efficiency is significantly reduced. Additionally, the cioAB mutant failed to achieve 100 % killing. Whilst this is not complete attenuation as seen with the hcn mutant (Gallagher & Manoil, 2001) it is nevertheless worth noting that in previous experiments using the fast and slow killing models of C. elegans, mutants of the cytotoxic P. aeruginosa strain PA14 in dsbA (in both models) and pho34B12 (in the slow killing model) demonstrated similar kinetics of killing, i.e. delayed killing (Tan et al., 1999). Therefore the CIO would appear to be required for full pathogenicity in the paralytic model of C. elegans infection. It is conceivable that the delay in killing is due to P. aeruginosa having difficulty handling cyanide in the absence of a functioning CIO-terminated electron transport pathway for respiration.
|
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
|---|
|
REFERENCES |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
Baughn, A. D. & Malamy, M. H. (2004). The strict anaerobe Bacteroides fragilis grows in and benefits from nanomolar concentrations of oxygen. Nature 427, 441–444.[CrossRef][Medline]
Blumer, C. & Haas, D. (2000). Mechanism, regulation, and ecological role of bacterial cyanide biosynthesis. Arch Microbiol 173, 170–177.[CrossRef][Medline]
Brenner, S. (1974). The genetics of Caenorhabditis elegans. Genetics 77, 71–94.
Cipollone, R., Bigotti, M. G., Frangipani, E., Ascenzi, P. & Visca, P. (2004). Characterization of a rhodanese from the cyanogenic bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 325, 85–90.[CrossRef][Medline]
Cipollone, R., Ascenzi, P., Frangipani, E. & Visca, P. (2006). Cyanide detoxification by recombinant bacterial rhodanese. Chemosphere (in press).
Comolli, J. C. & Donohue, T. J. (2002). Pseudomonas aeruginosa RoxR, a response regulator related to Rhodobacter sphaeroides PrrA, activates expression of the cyanide-insensitive terminal oxidase. Mol Microbiol 45, 755–768.[CrossRef][Medline]
Cooper, M., Tavankar, G. R. & Williams, H. D. (2003). Regulation of expression of the cyanide-insensitive terminal oxidase in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Microbiology 149, 1275–1284.
Cunningham, L. & Williams, H. D. (1995). Isolation and characterization of mutants defective in the cyanide-insensitive respiratory pathway of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Bacteriol 177, 432–438.
Cunningham, L., Pitt, M. & Williams, H. D. (1997). The cioAB genes from Pseudomonas aeruginosa code for a novel cyanide-insensitive terminal oxidase related to the cytochrome bd quinol oxidases. Mol Microbiol 24, 579–591.[CrossRef][Medline]
Darby, C., Cosma, C. L., Thomas, J. H. & Manoil, C. (1999). Lethal paralysis of Caenorhabditis elegans by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96, 15202–15207.
Davies, K. J., Lloyd, D. & Boddy, L. (1989). The effect of oxygen on denitrification in Paracoccus denitrificans and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Gen Microbiol 135, 2445–2451.[Medline]
D'Mello, R., Hill, S. & Poole, R. K. (1996). The cytochrome bd quinol oxidase in Escherichia coli has an extremely high oxygen affinity and two oxygen-binding haems: implications for regulation of activity in vivo by oxygen inhibition. Microbiology 142, 755–763.[Abstract]
Eschbach, M., Schreiber, K., Trunk, K., Buer, J., Jahn, D. & Schobert, M. (2004). Long-term anaerobic survival of the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa via pyruvate fermentation. J Bacteriol 186, 4596–4604.
Fujiwara, T., Fukumori, Y. & Yamanaka, T. (1992). A novel terminal oxidase, cytochrome baa3 purified from aerobically grown Pseudomonas aeruginosa: it shows a clear difference between resting state and pulsed state. J Biochem 112, 290–298.
Gallagher, L. A. & Manoil, C. (2001). Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 kills Caenorhabditis elegans by cyanide poisoning. J Bacteriol 183, 6207–6214.
Goldfarb, W. B. & Margraf, H. (1967). Cyanide production by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Ann Surg 165, 104–110.[Medline]
Hassett, D. J., Cuppoletti, J., Trapnell, B. & 10 other authors (2002). Anaerobic metabolism and quorum sensing by Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms in chronically infected cystic fibrosis airways: rethinking antibiotic treatment strategies and drug targets. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 54, 1425–1443.[CrossRef][Medline]
Ho, S. N., Hunt, H. D., Horton, R. M., Pullen, J. K. & Pease, L. R. (1989). Site-directed mutagenesis by overlap extension using the polymerase chain reaction. Gene 77, 51–59.[CrossRef][Medline]
Hoffmann, H. D., Morgan, T. V. & Der Vartanian, D. V. (1979). Respiratory-chain characteristics of mutants of Azotobacter vinelandii negative to tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine. Eur J Biochem 100, 19–27.[Medline]
Jünemann, S. (1997). Cytochrome bd terminal oxidase. Biochim Biophys Acta 1321, 107–127.[Medline]
Lindon, J. C., Nicholson, J. K. & Everett, J. R. (1999). NMR spectroscopy of biofluids. Annu Rep NMR Spectrosc 38, 1–88.
Lyczak, J. B., Cannon, C. L. & Pier, G. B. (2000). Establishment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection: lessons from a versatile opportunist. Microbes Infect 2, 1051–1060.[CrossRef][Medline]
Mahajan-Miklos, S., Tan, M. W., Rahme, L. G. & Ausubel, F. M. (1999). Molecular mechanisms of bacterial virulence elucidated using a Pseudomonas aeruginosa-Caenorhabditis elegans pathogenesis model. Cell 96, 47–56.[CrossRef][Medline]
Milton, D. L., O'Toole, R., Hörstedt, P. & Wolf-Watz, H. (1996). Flagellin A is essential for the virulence of Vibrio anguillarum. J Bacteriol 178, 1310–1319.
Pessi, G. & Haas, D. (2000). Transcriptional control of the hydrogen cyanide biosynthetic genes hcnABC by the anaerobic regulator ANR and the quorum-sensing regulators LasR and RhlR in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Bacteriol 182, 6940–6949.
Poole, R. K. & Cook, G. M. (2000). Redundancy of aerobic respiratory chains in bacteria? Routes, reasons and regulation. Adv Microb Physiol 43, 165–224.[Medline]
Tan, M. W., Mahajan-Miklos, S. & Ausubel, F. M. (1999). Killing of Caenorhabditis elegans by Pseudomonas aeruginosa used to model mammalian bacterial pathogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96, 715–720.
Tavankar, G. R., Mossialos, D. & Williams, H. D. (2003). Mutation or overexpression of a terminal oxidase leads to a cell division defect and multiple antibiotic sensitivity in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Biol Chem 278, 4524–4530.
Vander Wauven, C., Piérard, A., Kley-Raymann, M. & Haas, D. (1984). Pseudomonas aeruginosa mutants affected in anaerobic growth on arginine: evidence for a four-gene cluster encoding the arginine deiminase pathway. J Bacteriol 160, 928–934.
Wood, W. B. (1988). The Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
Zannoni, D. (1989). The respiratory chains of pathogenic pseudomonads. Biochim Biophys Acta 975, 299–316.[Medline]
Zlosnik, J. E. A. & Williams, H. D. (2004). Methods for assaying cyanide in bacterial culture supernatant. Lett Appl Microbiol 38, 360–365.[Medline]
Received 1 August 2005;
revised 12 December 2006;
accepted 17 January 2006.
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  R. J. Jackson, K. T. Elvers, L. J. Lee, M. D. Gidley, L. M. Wainwright, J. Lightfoot, S. F. Park, and R. K. Poole Oxygen Reactivity of Both Respiratory Oxidases in Campylobacter jejuni: the cydAB Genes Encode a Cyanide-Resistant, Low-Affinity Oxidase That Is Not of the Cytochrome bd Type J. Bacteriol., March 1, 2007; 189(5): 1604 - 1615. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. Cipollone, E. Frangipani, F. Tiburzi, F. Imperi, P. Ascenzi, and P. Visca Involvement of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Rhodanese in Protection from Cyanide Toxicity Appl. Envir. Microbiol., January 1, 2007; 73(2): 390 - 398. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| INT J SYST EVOL MICROBIOL | MICROBIOLOGY | J GEN VIROL |
| J MED MICROBIOL | ALL SGM JOURNALS | |
) and cyanide concentrations (
) were followed. Measurements are the mean±SD of three independent replicates.
, PAO1; 
, E. coli OP50. Measurements are the mean±SD of three independent experiments.