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Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences (Microbiology), University of Oslo, PO Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
Correspondence
Ole Andreas Økstad
o.a.l.okstad{at}biotek.uio.no
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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155 bp repeated element found uniquely and ubiquitously in the Bacillus cereus group of Gram-positive bacteria; it exhibits several features characteristic of mobile elements, including a variable distribution pattern between strains. Here, highly similar bcr1 elements in non-conserved genomic loci are identified in a set of closely related B. cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis strains near the Bacillus anthracis phylogenetic cluster. It is also shown that bcr1 may be present on small RNA transcripts in the 100–400 bp size range. In silico folding of bcr1 at the RNA level indicated that transcripts may form a double-hairpin-like structure predicted to have high structural stability. A functional role of bcr1 at the RNA level is supported by multiple cases of G–U base-pairing, and compensatory mutations maintaining structural stability of the RNA fold. In silico folding at the DNA level produced similar predicted structures, with the potential to form a cruciform structure at open DNA complexes. The predicted structural stability was greater for bcr1 elements showing high sequence identities to bcr1 elements in non-conserved chromosomal loci in other strains, relative to other bcr1 copies. bcr1 mobility could thus be dependent on the formation of a stable DNA or RNA intermediate. Furthermore, bcr1 elements potentially encoding structurally stable and less stable transcripts were phylogenetically intermixed, indicating that loss of bcr1 mobility may have occurred multiple times during evolution. Repeated elements with similar features in other bacteria have been shown to provide functions such as mRNA stabilization, transcription termination and/or promoter function. Similarly, bcr1 may constitute a mobile element which occasionally gains a function when it enters an appropriate chromosomal locus.
The multiple-sequence alignment results for the full-length repeats examined in this study have been deposited into the EMBL-ALIGN database with the accession number ALIGN_001090.
Two supplementary figures showing the multiple sequence alignment and the predicted RNA folding of the full-length bcr1 repeats and two supplementary tables listing the chromosomal coordinates of full-length and partial bcr1 sequences in the strains studied are available with the online version of this paper.
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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), including B. cereus, an opportunistic pathogen involved in two types of food poisoning syndromes and a range of opportunistic infections (Drobniewski, 1993), Bacillus thuringiensis, an insect pathogen widely used as a commercial biopesticide (Schnepf et al., 1998), and Bacillus anthracis, the anthrax pathogen, employed as a bioterror agent in 2001 (Jernigan et al., 2001). By comprehensive analysis of complete genome sequences, the species of the B. cereus group have been shown to carry a range of repeated elements in their genomes (Tourasse et al., 2006), including the 155 bp repeated element bcr1, originally discovered during piecemeal sequence analysis of B. cereus ATCC 10987 and B. cereus ATCC 14579 (Økstad et al., 1999), which appears to be ubiquitous and unique to the B. cereus group (Økstad et al., 2004). bcr1 displays characteristics of a mobile element in showing multiple unique chromosomal insertion loci for each particular strain, being flanked by a directly repeated TTTAT motif at both ends, and occasionally interrupting genes. Furthermore, when a chromosomal locus contains a bcr1 element in one particular strain and the corresponding locus in a different strain lacks bcr1, the locus devoid of bcr1 frequently still contains one copy of the TTTAT direct repeat (Økstad et al., 2004). Thus it has been suggested that during a mobility event the resident chromosomal TTTAT copy could be duplicated upon bcr1 insertion by a transposon-like mechanism involving staggered cuts and a filling-in reaction, or that the second TTTAT copy may be part of the moving bcr1 element, with integration into the chromosome occurring through a site-specific-recombination-like mechanism (Økstad et al., 2004).
In a previous study, comparing three relatively distantly related strains, bcr1 was found to display a random chromosomal distribution, shown by a high variability in the number of repeats in each strain and by the low number of bcr1 elements found at corresponding chromosomal loci (Økstad et al., 2004). This is in strong contrast to the general gene synteny observed between chromosomes in B. cereus group strains (Ivanova et al., 2003; Rasko et al., 2004, 2005; Read et al., 2003). To date, bcr1 has never been detected in extrachromosomal DNA, and the chromosomal localization of bcr1 elements exhibits a strong bias towards the leading strand of DNA replication (Økstad et al., 2004).
In this paper we describe a four-way computational analysis of newly available complete genome sequence data from closely related strains near the B. anthracis phylogenetic cluster, shedding light on bcr1 evolution. We also present experimental data suggesting that bcr1 may be part of small RNA transcripts, show that compensatory mutations are frequently introduced into bcr1, presumably in order to maintain stability of the folded molecule, and suggest that mobility of bcr1 is correlated with the predicted stability of the bcr1 DNA or RNA secondary structure.
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METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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), originally isolated from a dead cow in Texas in 1981 (GenBank accession number AE016879); B. cereus ATCC 10987 (Rasko et al., 2004), a dairy strain isolated from spoiled cheese in Canada in the 1930s (Herron, 1930; GenBank accession number AE017194); B. cereus E33L [formerly known as B. cereus Zebra Killer (Han et al., 2006)], originally isolated from the carcass of a zebra in Etosha National Park, Namibia (GenBank accession number CP000001); B. thuringiensis 97-27 [subsp. konkukian serotype H34 (Han et al., 2006)], a strain isolated from the leg wound of a 28-year-old French soldier following a landmine explosion, and causing severe tissue necrosis (Hernandez et al., 1998; GenBank accession number AE017355). All strains analysed map close to the B. anthracis phylogenetic cluster by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MLEE) analyses (Helgason et al., 2000b, 2004), and have been sequenced to completion [for a complete overview of currently available B. cereus group genome sequence data see Tourasse et al. (2006)]. In addition, B. cereus strains AH818 and AH820, isolated from cases of human periodontitis (Helgason et al., 2000a), were analysed for bcr1 loci shared with B. anthracis by PCR screening (see below).
Whole-genome alignments.
Multiple Genome Aligner (MGA; Hohl et al., 2002) was employed for full-length genome comparisons. All chromosome sequences were indexed according to the MGA guidelines prior to computation, using the mkvtree program with options ‘-dna -lcp -suf -tis’. The mga alignment program was set to run with length thresholds of 50 bp and 20 bp (-l 50 20), a maximum gap length of 3000 bp (-gl 3000), to always recurse into gaps (-always), and to use CLUSTAL W to close short gaps (-clustalw). Both aligned (-alignedseqs) and unaligned (-gaps) sequences were output. All four fully sequenced strains used in the study were compared in pairs, generating six comparisons. For each pairwise comparison, all aligned sequences were concatenated and the sequence identity between the concatenated sequences was calculated after removal of all positions with gaps (i.e. insertions and deletions). This value was taken to represent the average identity between homologous regions in any two genomes.
Iterative BLAST searches.
To identify bcr1 elements in the whole-genome sequences, a BLASTN (Altschul et al., 1997) search procedure was executed essentially as described previously (Økstad et al., 2004) with the following modifications. To increase the sensitivity of the search, a dual iterative BLASTN routine was employed, in which two parallel runs of BLASTN were conducted at each step, one using lowered gap penalties (opening cost G=1 and extension cost E=1), the other using increased reward for nucleotide match (match reward, r=2). The two BLASTN output files were combined and all identified full-length bcr1 sequences [repeats of length 120 bp or more, as defined in Økstad et al. (2004)] from the strains were used as seeds in a subsequent BLASTN search against all strains in the analysis. This process was repeated until no further full-length repeats could be identified. The complete genome of B. cereus ATCC 14579 (type strain, GenBank accession number AE016877) was included in the iterative BLAST search, in order to provide additional seed sequences. This strain, however, belongs to a different phylogenetic subgroup (Helgason et al., 2004), and was thus not included in the comparative analyses. The identity of all full-length repeats was verified by multiple-sequence alignment using CLUSTAL W (Thompson et al., 1994). The alignment was manually checked and corrected using SEAVIEW (Galtier et al., 1996), and deposited into the EMBL-ALIGN database (Lombard et al., 2002; accession number ALIGN_001090). Partial repeats in the genomes (defined as those ranging from 30 to 119 bp; Økstad et al., 2004) were identified by a dual non-iterative BLASTN routine, one using opening cost G=1 and extension cost E=1, the other using match reward r=2, as above. All 218 full-length bcr1 identified in the iterative BLASTN routine described above were used as seeds (B. cereus ATCC 14579 included).
Comparative analysis of chromosome regions flanking bcr1 repeats.
In order to investigate locus conservation of bcr1 elements, 2 kb of DNA sequence was extracted from both sides of each repeat, for both full-length and partial elements. The sequences were subsequently used as input in an all-against-all BLASTN search with default parameters, using the BLAST-enhancement tool MSPcrunch (Sonnhammer & Durbin, 1994) and CLUSTAL W for sorting and visualization of hits. Repeats (full-length or partial) for which both flanking regions were conserved in different strains were considered as being at a conserved genomic locus.
Comparative analysis of bcr1 sequence conservation.
To identify closely related bcr1 sequences in the sequenced B. cereus group genomes, an all-against-all BLASTN comparison was performed using the identified full-length bcr1 sequences and default parameters, with the exception of no filtering of low-complexity regions. The output was converted to a format suitable for GenomePixelizer, using a GenomePixelizer parser (Kozik et al., 2002; http://www.atgc.org/GenomePixelizer/), retaining BLASTN hits with an expectation value (E-value) lower than 1x10–30, a normalized nucleotide sequence identity >90 %, and an alignment length of 120 bp or greater.
Phylogenetic analysis of bcr1 sequences.
A phylogenetic analysis was performed for all 159 full-length bcr1 repeats identified. The sequences were aligned using CLUSTAL W (Thompson et al., 1994, 1997) followed by manual editing in SEAVIEW (Galtier et al., 1996). The final alignment (189 bp including gaps) was converted into MEGA format. Using MEGA (Kumar et al., 2001), a tree was constructed by the neighbour-joining method (Saitou & Nei, 1987), with the K80 substitution model allowing for transition/transversion substitution rate bias (Kimura, 1980) and gaps treated by pairwise deletion. Similar methods were used to construct trees for two different subsets of bcr1 elements.
A set of three bcr1 repeats located in conserved loci in B. cereus strains ATCC 10987, E33L, AH818 and AH820, B. thuringiensis 97-27 and B. anthracis Ames were used for phylogenetic analysis; bcr1 sequences from the same strain were concatenated. After block extraction using the Gblocks program (http://molevol.ibmb.csic.es/Gblocks_server/) (Castresana, 2000) with default parameters, reducing the alignment from 470 bp to 432 bp, the final alignment was converted to the NEXUS file format and input into MrBayes (Huelsenbeck & Ronquist, 2001; Ronquist & Huelsenbeck, 2003) for phylogenetic analysis using maximum-likelihood-based Bayesian inference. A total of 1 000 000 generations were executed using a burn-in value of 100 000, and a sampling frequency of 1000. The likelihood was computed using a two-parameter substitution model allowing for transition/transversion substitution rate bias (nst=2, similar to HKY85), with invariant+gamma distribution (rates=invgamma) allowing variable substitution rates among sites, and with base frequencies estimated by the program.
MrBayes consensus trees were visualized using TreeView (Page, 1996). Trees based on all datasets were also constructed in MEGA (Kumar et al., 2001) using the K80 substitution model (Kimura, 1980) and the neighbour-joining method (Saitou & Nei, 1987) and showed branchings nearly identical to those constructed with MrBayes.
DNA and RNA secondary structure predictions.
DNA and RNA secondary structures and thermodynamics were predicted using the MFOLD package, version 3.1 (Mathews et al., 1999; Zuker, 2003), with default parameters. All 159 full-length bcr1 sequences from the complete B. cereus group genomes were folded as circular or linear RNA, and circular or linear DNA, with both terminal TTTAT direct repeats included in the structure. For a given bcr1 sequence the folding with the minimum free energy (
G value) was selected. As folding results for the circular and linear forms showed only very slight variations, results of circular folding were used in the analysis. Furthermore, an alignment of the four largest inverted sequences (two pairs) within bcr1 was constructed, after removing repeats harbouring significant deletions (55 out of 159 repeats). Compensatory mutations located within these inverted repeats were detected by visual inspection.
PCR amplification and nucleotide sequencing of conserved bcr1 copies from B. cereus strains AH818 and AH820.
PCR primers for the detection of conserved bcr1 repeats in the unsequenced B. cereus strains AH818 and AH820 were designed using the genome sequence of B. anthracis Ames and Primer3 software (Rozen & Skaletsky, 2000). Primers were positioned in regions flanking each full-length B. anthracis Ames bcr1 copy (sequences given in Table 1). NetPrimer (Premier Biosoft International) was employed for additional control of primer sequences. PCRs were conducted in a total reaction volume of 50 µl, with 0.2 mM of each deoxynucleoside triphosphate (Promega), 0.6 µM of each primer (Invitrogen), 50 ng genomic template DNA and 1 U DyNAzyme (Finnzymes). PCR was run with an initial denaturation step of 5 min at 94 °C, followed by 40 cycles of 1 min denaturation at 94 °C, 1 min annealing at 57 °C and 1 min elongation at 72 °C. A final elongation step at 72 °C for 7 min was included. All PCR products were sequenced using standard methods.
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Northern blotting and riboprobe hybridization.
For each sample, total RNA (25 µg) in formaldehyde loading buffer (Ambion) was heated for 10 min at 65 °C and loaded onto a denaturing polyacrylamide gel [7 M urea, 6 % polyacrylamide, 1x Tris/borate/EDTA (1xTBE: 90 mM Tris/borate (Sigma-Aldrich), 2 mM EDTA (Sigma-Aldrich)), 120 V]. Following electrophoresis, RNA was electroblotted overnight (0.5xTBE, 18 V, 4 °C) to a nylon membrane (Hybond-N+, Amersham) and fixed by UV-irradiation.
Probes for hybridization were designed from the plus and minus strands of a bcr1 element located between genes BC3105 and BC3106 of B. cereus ATCC 14579 (genomic coordinates 3069711–3069552 in AE016877). The bcr1 element used as the template had been cloned into pUC19 vector before PCR (Økstad et al., 2004), and corresponded to the element originally used as the seed sequence for the iterative BLAST searches. The DNA template for riboprobe construction was synthesized by PCR using primers from each end of the bcr1 element. A T7 promoter and a BamHI restriction site were incorporated in the 5' end of each primer (Invitrogen). The primer sequences were as follows: primer 721 : 5'-TAATACGACTCACTATAGGGAGA CCC GGA TCC GGC AGT AAG ACC TCC ACC TC-3', primer 722 : 5'-TAATACGACTCACTATAGGGAGA GCG GGA TCC ATA AAG TGA AAC TTT AAT CAG-3') (BamHI restriction sites underlined, T7 promoter sequence in italics). Primers corresponding to 721 and 722, but not containing the T7 promoter sites, were also synthesized (Invitrogen), and two PCR reactions were set up, in which each reaction was run with only one primer carrying the T7 promoter sequence. The PCR products were purified from 3 % agarose gels (Nusieve GTG, Cambrex) using the Qiaquick gel extraction kit (Qiagen), and riboprobes representing each of the two bcr1 strands were synthesized in separate reactions from the single T7 promoter site in each PCR product, using T7 RNA polymerase and employing the Maxiscript kit (Ambion) with 100 µCi (3.7x106 Bq) [
-32P]UTP [800 Ci mmol–1 (29.6 TBq mmol–1), 20 mCi ml–1 (740 MBq ml–1)] and 0.5 mM unlabelled ATP, CTP and GTP, following the suppliers' instructions. Following DNase treatment (DNase I, FPLC pure, Amersham), the full-length riboprobes were purified from a denaturating polyacrylamide gel (7 M urea, 6 % polyacrylamide). Hybridization was performed with Perfecthyb Plus (Sigma) as instructed by the supplier, with the highest stringency wash. Membranes were exposed overnight, and signals were visualized using a phosphorimager (STORM 860, Molecular Dynamics).
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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) as 79, 12 and 54 chromosomal copies, respectively, in B. cereus ATCC 10987, B. anthracis Ames and the more distantly related B. cereus ATCC 14579 (type strain), which is not part of the same phylogenetic cluster (Helgason et al., 2000b, 2004). In this work bcr1 distribution was analysed in four B. cereus group strains mapping in or close to the B. anthracis cluster by MLST (Fig. 1a), and for which complete, closed genome sequences were available, using an improved identification method employing an iterative dual-BLAST procedure. The total numbers of full-length bcr1 identified in the four chromosomes by the updated method were as follows: B. cereus ATCC 10987, 84; B. cereus E33L, 31; B. thuringiensis 97-27, 29; and B. anthracis Ames, 15. As observed from a multiple-sequence alignment, the newly identified repeats in B. cereus ATCC 10987 and B. anthracis Ames relative to those analysed by Økstad et al. (2004) clearly belonged to the bcr1 family (see Supplementary Fig. S1, available with the online version of this paper). In addition, 493 partial bcr1 elements were identified altogether, with the following strain distribution: B. cereus ATCC 10987, 212; B. anthracis Ames, 91; B. thuringiensis 97-27, 93; B. cereus E33L, 97 (coordinates of full-length and partial bcr1 elements are provided in Supplementary Tables S1 and S2, available with the online version of this paper). The partial elements were heterogeneous, representing various regions of the full-length elements.
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). Interestingly, the number of bcr1 loci (full-length and partial) of each strain shared with B. anthracis (by pairwise comparison) was largely inversely proportional to the phylogenetic distance of the strain from B. anthracis (B. thuringiensis 97-27, 14; B. cereus E33L, 10; B. cereus ATCC 10987, 7) (Table 2, Fig. 1a
). This trend was further supported by PCR screening of two clinical B. cereus strains isolated from cases of human periodontitis (AH818 and AH820; Helgason et al., 2000a), which are among the most closely related B. cereus strains to B. anthracis known to date (Helgason et al., 2004; Fig. 1a). Using primers to neighbouring regions flanking each full-length repeat element identified in B. anthracis, it was shown that B. anthracis Ames shares 12 of its 15 full-length repeats with B. cereus AH818 and AH820.
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). Northern blotting has previously shown that bcr1 elements are part of longer transcripts in the size range 1.0–2.5 kb (Økstad et al., 2004), indicating co-transcription of bcr1 with neighbouring genes. To investigate whether bcr1 could also be part of small RNA transcripts, distinct from those of neighbouring genes, total RNA isolated from cells during mid-exponential growth (4.5 h) was separated by PAGE, electroblotted and hybridized with a bcr1 riboprobe, employing both strands in separate hybridization reactions. This revealed that bcr1 can be part of transcripts in the size range 100–400 bp (Fig. 2; the riboprobe was constructed employing the T7 promoter site in primer 722, which contains a 21 nt region complementary to a conserved end of bcr1), which is compatible with the sizes of full-length bcr1 elements (range: 120–163 bp). Interestingly, the hybridization pattern showed variability between strains (Fig. 2); B. cereus ATCC 10987, which has the highest bcr1 copy number among the strains investigated, also had the highest number of differently sized small RNA molecules hybridizing with the probe, and in addition showed significantly stronger bands. This strain also contained a hybridizing RNA of approximately 100 bp, which could originate from transcription of a partial repeat element (Fig. 2).
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In silico RNA secondary structure prediction of bcr1 elements
To investigate secondary structure stability and predict the RNA folding for each bcr1 element, all 159 full-length bcr1 copies in the genomes of B. cereus ATCC 10987, B. cereus E33L, B. thuringiensis 97-27, and B. anthracis Ames were analysed using MFOLD (Mathews et al., 1999; Zuker, 2003). Computed minimum folding energies (G) were found to vary from –17.5 to –87.0 kcal mol–1 (–73.2 to –364.0 kJ mol–1), with an average of –57.1 kcal mol–1 (–238.9 kJ mol–1) [see Supplementary Fig. S2, available with the online version of this paper; for linear folding, the range was –19.3 to –87.0 kcal mol–1 (–80.6 to –364.0 kJ mol–1), average –57.9 kcal mol–1 (–242.3 kJ mol–1)]. The most stable secondary structure was predicted to constitute a double-hairpin-like fold, as exemplified by bcr1 copy 77R from B. cereus ATCC 10987, due to the presence of internal inverted repeat motifs [Cereus_10987_77R, G=–87.0 kcal mol–1 (–364.0 kJ mol–1); Fig. 3a]. Several cases of G–U base pairing were observed in the secondary structures, in line with the observation that bcr1 is transcribed (Fig. 2) and was predicted to fold as RNA (Fig. 3a, Supplementary Fig. S2). Folding bcr1 at the DNA level (ssDNA) produced similar structures (data not shown). bcr1 may thus have the capacity to form a cruciform-like structure at open DNA complexes, for instance during replication or transcription, when DNA strands may be separated into single strands around bcr1. The cruciform structure would then be constituted by one double hairpin forming at each single strand of bcr1 in the open DNA complex, and the double-stranded DNA extending from each side of the pair of double hairpins. Such a cruciform structure would bring the TTTAT-termini into close proximity in three-dimensional space, and one could hypothesize the recognition of such a structure by a putative transposing or recombination enzyme supplied in trans from another genomic locus (Økstad et al., 2004).
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G values still deviated from the double-hairpin-like shape, while other elements displayed G values higher than the average and were still predicted to form the double-hairpin structure. The latter group (32 full-length repeats) could in most cases be explained by shorter bcr1 sequences (120–130 bp) and/or a higher number of bulges and/or a higher AT content in the sequence. With only two exceptions, these repeats displayed less than 95 % BLASTN identity to other bcr1 repeats in the chromosomes included in this study. The smaller group (8 repeats), comprising bcr1 elements with low G values and deviating folding structures, could be a result of a limited number of crucial mutations disturbing the double-hairpin structure. Despite their deviating structures (Supplementary Fig. S2), some of these repeats still displayed high sequence identity to other bcr1 elements. No correlation was found between the location of the deviating bcr1 elements and the function of their neighbouring genes.
The importance of maintaining a stable bcr1 secondary structure was corroborated by the frequent observation of compensatory mutations when comparing the two largest pairs of inverted repeats within bcr1 (Fig. 3b). As a consequence, full-length repeats harbouring large deletions and/or nucleotide substitutions were predicted to form less stable secondary structures, in some cases with different conformations, in particular when a deletion fell within one of the inverted repeat regions forming the stems (Supplementary Figs S1 and S2). When sorting repeats according to their lengths we observed a sharp shift, resulting in a subdivision of the repeats, mainly into either 155 bp or 125 bp variants (Fig. 4; Supplementary Fig. S1). This was largely due to a 33 bp deletion near the 3' end which spans internal stem B1–B2 (Fig. 3a) and is present in 27 out of the 159 bcr1 repeats, but deletions of similar sizes could also be detected in other regions (Supplementary Fig. S1). The 33 bp deletion makes the B1–B2 stem 16 bp shorter (as compared to Cereus_10987_77R), and sustains its integrity but not its nucleotide sequence symmetry (e.g. compare structures of Cereus_10987_77R in Fig. 3a and Cereus_10987_49R in Supplementary Fig. S2; corresponding to Bce_77R and Bce_49R aligned in Supplementary Fig. S1). The bcr1 repeats in the 155 bp size range clearly exhibited a generally higher structural stability (G<–50 kcal mol–1; –209.2 kJ mol–1) than those in the 125 bp range (G>–50 kcal mol–1) (Fig. 4).
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, 2005). To calculate the average sequence identity of shared chromosome regions between the four strains in this study for which complete genome sequences exist, a pairwise comparison of the chromosome sequences was performed using Multiple Genome Aligner (MGA; Hohl et al., 2002). Pairwise sequence identity scores varied from 94.2% for B. cereus ATCC 10987 and B. thuringiensis 97-27, to 97.8 % for B. anthracis Ames and B. thuringiensis 97-27 (Table 3), and correlated well with the strain phylogeny reconstructed by MLST (Fig. 1a). bcr1 repeats are known to exhibit a wide range of pairwise sequence identity (Økstad et al., 2004), and the full-length bcr1 copies identified in this study were found to exhibit between 44.0 % and 100 % sequence identity, with an average of 82.8 %. An all-versus-all BLAST comparison between the 159 full-length bcr1 sequences from B. cereus ATCC 10987, B. cereus E33L, B. thuringiensis 97-27 and B. anthracis Ames revealed that, in addition to a remarkably high sequence conservation of repeats located in corresponding genomic loci (79.0–100 % sequence identity, average 94.4 %; Table 2), there were numerous cases of bcr1 sequence identity above the genomic DNA average between repeats located in non-corresponding loci in different genomes (Fig. 5). Repeat 14R from B. anthracis shows 98 % identity to B. cereus ATCC 10987 repeats 33F, 46R, and 65R, above average for shared chromosomal regions (94.4 %, Table 3). These bcr1 copies are all located in different genomic loci and in one case in the opposite relative orientation (Fig. 5). B. anthracis Ames 10F, B. thuringiensis konkukian 13F and B. cereus ATCC 10987 75R also display 98–99 % identity. Unexpectedly, the high degree of sequence similarity, displaying 98 % sequence identity or more between non-corresponding repeats, is most apparent between B. cereus ATCC 10987 and B. anthracis Ames, the least phylogenetically related among the four strains included in the comparison. Furthermore, within each of the four genomes, multiple bcr1 elements exhibited sequence identities of 94 % or more. This was most pronounced in B. cereus ATCC 10987, with 10 bcr1 copies showing 97 % or more sequence identity to other elements in the genome.
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G<–57.1 kcal mol–1; –238.9 kJ mmol–1) indicated in red in Figs 4 and 5), while repeats with less than average folding stability (G>–57.1 kcal mol–1) tended to be located in corresponding loci and/or share high sequence identity with only a few other repeats (indicated in blue in Figs 4 and 5). Taken together, this could suggest that bcr1 copies with multiple high-sequence-identity connections are functionally mobile copies and that proper folding, at either the DNA or RNA level, is important for the mobility function. An unrooted phylogenetic tree of all 159 full-length bcr1 repeats from the strains close to the B. anthracis cluster was constructed by the neighbour-joining method (Saitou & Nei, 1987) with the K80 substitution model (Kimura, 1980), demonstrating that repeat elements with a higher than average predicted structural stability are intermixed with those exhibiting less than average stability (Fig. 6), and that ‘high-energy’ bcr1 repeats do not exhibit a propensity to cluster phylogenetically.
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90 %) were predicted to form double-hairpin-shaped structures, and only two displayed a deviating secondary structure, while in the second subset 22 of 43 repeats (51 %) were predicted to exhibit a double-hairpin-like fold, while 21 displayed a deviating structure (Fig. 7). These results strongly indicate that the ability to form a double-hairpin-like structure is correlated with the potential mobility of bcr1 elements.
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). In the present study, a phylogenetic tree was constructed based on the concatenated sequence of three bcr1 repeats (loci 1, 2 and 7 in Table 2) found to be located in corresponding genomic loci in the four complete genomes examined here (B. cereus ATCC 10987, B. cereus E33L, B. thuringiensis 97-27 and B. anthracis Ames), as well as in B. cereus strains AH818 and AH820 by PCR analysis (Fig. 1b). The phylogeny of the concatenated bcr1 sequences corresponded well with that reconstructed by MLST (Fig. 1a, b). Thus, several features of bcr1 follow the MLST phylogeny for the strains examined in this study (Fig. 1a): with increased phylogenetic distance from B. anthracis (1) the total number of full-length repeats in each particular strain increases, (2) the number of shared bcr1 loci decreases (Table 2), and (3) the sequence-based phylogeny of concatenated repeats from shared chromosomal loci is congruent with the phylogeny obtained by MLST. |
DISCUSSION |
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) showed that the newly identified bcr1 copies were part of the bcr1 family and that the iterative dual-BLAST procedure enabled improved bcr1 identification. A recent study describing the genome comparison of B. cereus E33L and B. thuringiensis 97-27 with the previously sequenced genomes in the group (Han et al., 2006) lists lower numbers of bcr1 elements, presumably due to the use of a less comprehensive identification procedure in that study. As the strains compared here are more closely related than those previously compared (Økstad et al., 2004), there was a larger number of repeats sharing the same genomic locus in different strains (Table 2), which allowed us to gain insights into bcr1 evolution.
In this work we present evidence that bcr1 is transcribed and may be present on small RNA molecules, and that it may form a secondary structure that is maintained by compensatory mutations. Northern hybridizations using full-length bcr1 as a probe indicated that bcr1 elements were part of RNA transcripts, in both the longer [1.0–2.5 kbp; (Økstad et al., 2004)] and shorter size range (120–400 bp; Fig. 2). Hybridization signals were obtained for both strands, which is probably due to the inverted repeat character of bcr1 (Fig. 3a) and/or bcr1 exhibiting transcription in both directions, potentially in a locus-dependent fashion. The presence of bcr1 on long transcripts suggests that it may be co-transcribed with neighbouring genes. This would be expected from the fact that in many cases bcr1 lies very close to annotated genes, sometimes overlapping the stop codon (Økstad et al., 2004). Interestingly, the detection of small transcripts whose sizes were about the size of full-length bcr1 could indicate an independent or autonomous expression of the repeat element. However, it may also be possible that the smaller RNAs are the result of bcr1 being cut off from longer transcripts, as is the case for the NEMIS (Correia) repeats in Neisseria species (Mazzone et al., 2001). Furthermore, the higher number of bcr1 bands and stronger banding pattern observed for B. cereus ATCC 10987 compared to B. cereus AH820 and B. thuringiensis 97-27 (Fig. 2) may be explained by the higher number of full-length bcr1 elements in the chromosome of the ATCC 10987 strain, and the possibility that different bcr1-containing transcripts (originating from variable chromosomal loci) may be present in any one band in the gel.
The bcr1 sequence has the potential to fold into a stable double-hairpin-like secondary structure whose folding free energy is comparable to that of repeated elements of similar sizes from other organisms (see examples below) (Fig. 3a and Supplementary Fig. S2). The identification of several compensatory mutations points towards the importance of maintaining this structure, implying that bcr1 has a functional role and/or an activity which depends on the integrity of the structure. As described previously (Økstad et al., 2004), bcr1 exhibits a number of characteristics of mobile elements, in particular a heterogeneous chromosomal distribution between strains, the occasional insertion inside chromosomal genes, and a TTTAT target site duplication at its termini. An interesting pattern that emerged from the analysis of bcr1 genomic distribution and sequence identity was that many bcr1 repeats displayed sequence identities above the chromosomal average, to repeats in non-corresponding loci in other strains (Fig. 5). In addition, some of the bcr1 copies that are found at a corresponding genomic locus in different strains (e.g. bcr1 2R) also display high similarity to repeats in other locations. Given the strong correlation between high predicted folding stability, ability to form a double-hairpin-like structure, and high sequence identity to multiple bcr1 copies in non-conserved loci (Figs 5 and 7), it is tempting to suggest that folding is linked to mobility, at either the DNA or RNA level. Maintaining a stable secondary structure may in this respect be important for the mobility mechanism. These observations underline the potential mobile nature of bcr1 and could be explained by duplication events having occurred in individual genomes. Very striking is the fact that bcr1 repeats in different genomes can actually share higher sequence identity than copies within each genome, possibly representing recent mobility events. To explain the small number of loci shared between strains, independent duplication and/or excision seems more likely than differential loss, since the latter would imply that the ancestor of the B. cereus group carried an unreasonably large number of bcr1 copies (Økstad et al., 2004). Even though there are a few cases of bcr1 being missing from a conserved insertion locus in one particular strain (Table 2), in most cases the sequence context appeared to have undergone additional rearrangements. Therefore, there is no conclusive evidence indicating precise bcr1 excision.
The bcr1 sequence is probably specific to the Bacillus cereus group of bacteria, which also harbours five other specific repeated elements of 110–310 bp, exhibiting variable copy numbers and genomic localizations (Tourasse et al., 2006). Miniature repeats with properties related to bcr1 have also been found in other prokaryotic and eukaryotic species. ERICs of enterobacteria (Bachellier et al., 1999; Stern et al., 1984), NEMIS in Neisseria spp. (Buisine et al., 2002; Correia et al., 1988; Mazzone et al., 2001), BOX and RUP elements in Streptococcus pneumoniae (Knutsen et al., 2006; Martin et al., 1992; Oggioni & Claverys, 1999) and the MITEs commonly found in eukaryotic genomes (Bureau & Wessler, 1994; Izsvak et al., 1999; Wessler et al., 1995) have all been predicted in silico to have the ability to form potentially stable secondary structures. NEMIS and RUPs exist in high copy numbers and both generate a specific TA target site duplication. The NEMIS elements can be co-transcribed with cellular genes (Mazzone et al., 2001), and at least one of the BOX elements is expressed (Martin et al., 1992). Interestingly, it has been proposed that maintenance of the stable stem–loop structure of the MITEs is involved in their amplification (Izsvak et al., 1999), as seems to be the case for bcr1. Furthermore, examination of entries in the Rfam database (Griffiths-Jones et al., 2003, 2005) indicated that the predicted double hairpin-like structure of bcr1 is highly similar to the structure of a group of small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) molecules from eukaryotes (reviewed by Kiss, 2002), more specifically those of certain SNORA families. Similar to bcr1, snoRNAs constitute non-coding RNA, and are known to exhibit a variety of functions related to RNA or DNA modification or processing (Kiss et al., 2004; Kiss, 2002).
When the maintenance of structural stability is analysed in the context of the bcr1 phylogeny, it appears that repeats with folding energies above and below the chromosomal average are intermixed in the tree (Fig. 6). This pattern may suggest that bcr1 has lost structural stability multiple times during its evolution. During mobility events, repeats could insert into new genomic loci where they may or may not provide a novel function to the cell. One may speculate that due to the loss of selection pressure, bcr1 elements inserting into non-favourable genomic loci could accumulate mutations and deletions and/or be subject to degradation, thereby disfavouring the formation of the double-hairpin secondary structure which may be essential for mobility. These repeats would then lose structural stability and thus the ability to move further, and could, through deletion and/or substitution processes, be the origin of the multitude of partial bcr1 elements observed. Interestingly, a phylogenetic analysis based on the three full-length bcr1 repeats that are present in the same locus in all strains analysed here produced a tree corresponding to the chromosomal MLST phylogeny (Fig. 1). This suggests that repeats in conserved loci are old and have followed genomic evolution. With a few exceptions, these elements also exhibit weak folding stability. It would thus seem that when the pressure to maintain the secondary structure is lost, bcr1 evolves along with the host genome. As a consequence, by identification of the conserved repeats in strains of interest, bcr1 might have the potential to be used as a high-resolution typing tool. This could be particularly useful for highly similar strains, where sufficient resolution is unattainable by MLST, e.g. the AH818 and AH820 strains studied here. Finally, a puzzling aspect of bcr1 and host genome evolution is the fact that the number of bcr1 copies decreases along the phylogenetic tree leading to B. anthracis. The number of partial bcr1 elements in B. anthracis is however comparable to those of the B. cereus and B. thuringiensis strains except for B. cereus ATCC 10987 (Supplementary Table S2). Also the total copy number of other repeat families identified in B. anthracis, is similar to those in B. cereus and B. thuringiensis strains (Tourasse et al., 2006), suggesting that the difference in copy number may be specific to the bcr1 repeat.
Repeats found in other prokaryotes have been assigned a multitude of functions (Hofnung & Shapiro, 1999; Versalovic & Lupski, 1998). In this study we see signs of mobility and transcription of the bcr1 repeat element, and the importance of maintaining a stable DNA or RNA secondary structure in order for mobility to occur. Furthermore, the potential to form secondary structures at the RNA level is apparent, and may suggest that bcr1 could provide function(s) to the cell, such as modulation of mRNA stability, transcription termination and/or promoter activity, as has been observed for elements with similar features in Neisseria and Streptococcus species (Buisine et al., 2002; Correia et al., 1988; Knutsen et al., 2006; Martin et al., 1992; Mazzone et al., 2001; Oggioni & Claverys, 1999). Since no apparent general function can currently be assigned to bcr1, it could represent a form of ‘selfish’ mobile DNA, which occasionally gains a function when entering an appropriate chromosomal locus.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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. This work was supported by grants from The Research Council of Norway through a Strategic University Programme (SUP, project number 146534/420) and through the FUGE Consortium for Advanced Microbial Sciences and Technology (FUGE-CAMST, project number 152020/310). Edited by: D. A. Mills
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Received 22 December 2006;
revised 27 June 2007;
accepted 13 July 2007.
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T base change occurs in a site X within a stem region, a simultaneous G
